Monday, January 27, 2020
Structure and Features of the Arabic Language
Structure and Features of the Arabic Language The Arabic language is a semantic language with a complicated morphology, which is significantly different from the most popular languages, such as English, Spanish, French, and Chinese. Arabic is an official language in over 22 countries. It is spoken as first language in North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan), the Arabian Peninsula (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen), Middle East (Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria), and other Arab countries (Mauritania, Comoros, Djibouti, Somalia). Since Arabic is the language of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, it is also spoken as a second language by several Asian countries such as: Indonesia, Pakistan, Iran, Uzbekistan and Malay[52]. More than 422 million people are able to speak Arabic, which makes this language the fifth most spoken language in the world, according to[53]. This chapter give brief description about the relevant basic elements of the Arabic language. This covers Arabic language structure, and the features of the Arabic writing system. The morphology of Arabic language and the Arabic word classes, i. e. nouns, verbs, and particles are presented in this chapter. The Arabic language challenges are also discussed in the last section of this chapter. 2.1.Arabic Language Structure The Arabic language is classified into three forms: Classical Arabic (CA), Colloquial Arabic Dialects (CAD), and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). CA is fully vowelized and includes classical historical liturgical text and old literature texts. CAD includes predominantly spoken vernaculars, and each Arab country has its dialect. MSA is the official language and includes news, media, and official documents[16]. The direction of writing in the Arabic language is from right to left. The alphabet of the Arabic language consists of 28 as shown in Table 2-1. Table 2‑1: The alphabet of the Arabic language No. Alone Form Transliteration Initial Form Medial Form End Form 1 Ø § a Ø § Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ § 2 Ø ¨ b Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ 3 Ø ª t Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª 4 Ø « th Ø «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ « 5 Ø ¬ j Ø ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ 6 Ø h Ø Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ 7 Ø ® kh Ø ®Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ® 8 Ø ¯ d Ø ¯ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ 9 Ø ° th Ø ° Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ° Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ° 10 Ø ± r Ø ± Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± 11 Ø ² z Ø ² Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ² Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ² 12 Ø ³ s Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ 13 Ø ´ sh Ø ´Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´ 14 Ø µ s Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ µ 15 Ø ¶ tha Ø ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ 16 Ø · ta Ø ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ · 17 Ø ¸ tha Ø ¸Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¸Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¸ 18 Ø ¹ aa Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ 19 Ø º gh Ø ºÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ º 20 Ù f Ù Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ 21 Ù‚ q Ù‚Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 22 Ùƒ k ÙƒÙâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™ 23 Ù„ l Ù„Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ 24 Ù†¦ m Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 Ù†n Ù†Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ 26 Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ h Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ 27 Ùˆw ÙˆÙâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ 28 ÙÅ y ÙÅ Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã… The formulation and shape are different for the same letter, depending on its position within the word [24]. For example, the letter (Ø ¹) has the following styles: (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬), if this letter appears at the beginning of the word, such as in Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ that means general; (Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬), if this letter appears in the middle of the word, such as in ÙÅ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ that means know; (Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹), if this letter appears at the end of the word, such as in ÙÅ Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ that means hear. Finally, the letter (Ø ¹) can appear as (Ø ¹) if this letter appears at the end of a word but disconnected from the letter before it such as in Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ that means fast see Figure (2-1). Figure 2-1: The Formulation and Shape for the Same Letter Thus, a three-letter word may start with a letter in beginning form, followed by a letter in medial form and, finally, by a letter in an end form such as: [Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾] Instead of: [Ø ¹ Ù†¦ Ù„] But the reality is even worse since a letter, in the middle of a word, may have the final or the initial form as in [٠ؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³] Because some letters do not connect with any character that comes after. They have only two forms: isolated (which is also used as initial) and final (also used as middle). These letters are (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø °ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø ±ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø ²ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ùˆ) for example: [وؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©] For the purpose of this thesis, we have defined our own transliteration scheme for Arabic alphabets, which is presented in Table 2.1. Each Arabic letter in this scheme is mapped to only one English letter. Wherever in this thesis, any Arabic word is annotated as a triple attribute to be more clear for a non-Arabic reader. The first attribute for the Arabic word itself which is written in Arabic scripts between two square brackets, the second attribute for an English transliteration which is written in italics, while the third one for English translation which is written between two quotation marks. Figure 2-2 shows an example. Figure 2-2: An Example of Annotated Arabic Word Three letters from the twenty-eight letters appear in different shapes, which are they: Hamza [Ø ¡]: This shape can be: on Alef [Ø £], below Alef [Ø ¥], on Waaw [Ø ¤], on Alef Maqsura [Ø ¦], or isolated [Ø ¡]. Taa-Marbuta [Ø ©]: This is a special form of the letter [Ø ª], it always appears at the end of the word. Alef-Maqsura [Ù†°]: This is a special form of the letter [Ø §], it always appears at the end of the word. The above three letters pose some difficulties when building morphological systems. Many of the written Arabic texts and Arabic web sites ignore the Hamza and the two dots above the Taa-Marbuta. For example, the Arabic word [Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©] (mdrst, school) may appear in many texts as [Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡] (mdrsh) (which means school or his teacher) without two dots above the last letter. When comparing the last letter in the two previous words, we found it was [Ø ©] in the first word, while it was [Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬] in the second word. Twenty-five of Arabic alphabets represent consonants. The remaining three letters represent the weak letters or the long vowels of Arabic (shortly vowels). These letters are: Alef[Ø §], Waaw[Ùˆ] and Yaa[ÙÅ ]. Moreover, diacritics are used in the Arabic language, which are symbols placed above or below the letters to add distinct pronunciation, grammatical formulation, and sometimes another meaning to the whole word. Arabic diacritics include, dama (Ù ), fathah (ÙÅ ½), kasra (Ù ), sukon (Ù’), double dama (ÙŒ), double fathah (Ù†¹), double kasra (Ù ) [54]. For instance, Table 2-2 presents different pronunciations of the letter (Sad) ((Ø µ: Table 2‑2: Presents different pronunciations of the letter (Sad) (Ø µ) Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…’ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… ½ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ /s/ /sun/ /sin/ /san/ /si/ /sa/ /su/ In addition, Arabic has special mark rather than the previous diacritics. this mark is called gemination mark (shaddah (Ø ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©) or tashdeed). Gemination is a mark written above the letter (Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ) to indicate a doubled consonant while pronouncing it. This is done when the first consonant has the null diacritical mark skoon (Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢), and the second consonant has any other diacritical mark. For example, in the Arabic word (كؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±) (kssr, he smashed to pieces), when the first syllable ends with (Ø ³)(s) and the next starts with (Ø ³) (s), the two consonants are united and the gemination mark indicates this union. So, the previous word is written as (كؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), and it has four letters {Ùƒ Ø ³ Ø ³ Ø ±}[55]. The Arabic language has two genders, feminine (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¤Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø «) and masculine (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ °Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±); three numbers, singular (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯), dual (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ù†°), and plural (Ø ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹); and three grammatical cases, nominative (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¹), accusative (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø µÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨), and genitive (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±). In general, Arabic words are categorized as particles (Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª), nouns (Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡), or verbs (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾). Nouns in Arabic including adjectives (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª) and adverbs (Ø ¸ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù ) and can be derived from other nouns, verbs, or particles. Nouns in the Arabic language cover proper nouns (such as people, places, things, ideas, day an d month names, etc.). A noun has the nominative case when it is the subject (٠ؠ§ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾); accusative when it is the object of a verb (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù„) and the genitive when it is the object of a preposition (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ø ± Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±) [56]. Verbs in Arabic are divided into perfect (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), imperfect (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ µ) and imperative (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±). Arabic particle category includes pronouns(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), adjectives(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª), adverbs(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã ƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ وؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾), conjunctions(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ), prepositions (ؠؠ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ٠ؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), interjections (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) and interrogatives (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ù†¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) [57]. 2.2.Arabic Morphology The Arabic language is one of the highly sophisticated natural languages which has a very rich and complicated morphology. Morphology is the part of linguistics that deal with the internal structure and formation processes of words. A morpheme is often defined as the smallest meaningful and significant unit of language, which cannot be broken down into smaller parts[58]. So, for example, the word apple consists of a single morpheme (the morpheme apple), while the word apples consist of two morphemes: the morpheme apple and the morpheme -s (indication of plural). In Arabic language for example, the word (Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, he asked them) consists also of two morphemes the verb (Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, he ask) and the pronoun (Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, them). According to the previous examples, there are two types of morphemes: roots and affixes. The root is the main morpheme of the word, supplying the main meaning, while the affixes are added i n the beginning, middle or end of the root to create new words that add additional meaning of various kinds. In more general morphemes could be classified as: (1) roots morphemes and (2) affixes morphemes, Figure 2.3 illustrated this classification. Figure 2-3: Morpheme Classification Root is the original morpheme of the word before any transformation processes that comprises the most important part of the word and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. In other words, it is the primary unit of the family of the same word after removing all inflectional and derivational affixes which can stand on their own as words (independent words). The root morphemes divided into two categories. The first category is called lexical morphemes, which covers the words in the language carrying the content of the message. Examples from English language: book, compute, and write, while examples from Arabic language: (قؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ £, read), (لؠ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨, play), and (كؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨, write). The second category is called stop words morphemes, which covers the function words in the language. The stop words include adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions. Examples from English language: on, that, the, and above. Examples from Arabic language: (Ù ÙÅ , in), (Ù وق, above), and (Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø ª, under). Affixes morphemes are also units of meaning; however, they cannot occur as words on their own; they need to be attached to something such as root morphemes. There are three types of affixes in Arabic language: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. In some cases, all of these affixes can be found in one word as in the word[وؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†] (and the warriors). This word has ten letters, three of them are root-letters, while the others are affixes. The root of this word is [ؠؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨] (war). The example in Figure 2.4 can clearly deduce the differences between the three main terms used in computational linguistics: roots, stems and affixes. Figure 2-4: The Decomposition of the Word [وؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†]. 2.3.Arabic Language Challenges Arabic is a challenging language in comparison with other languages such as English for a number of reasons: In English, prefixes and suffixes are added to the beginning or end of the root to create new words. In Arabic, in addition to the prefixes and suffixes there are infixes that can be added inside the word to create new words that have the same meaning. For example, in English, the word write is the root of word writer. In Arabic, the word writer (كؠ§ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) is derived from the root write (كؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) by adding the letter Alef (Ø §) inside the root. In these cases, it is difficult to distinguish between infix letters and the root letters. he Arabic language has a rich and complex morphology in comparison with English. Its richness is attributed to the fact that one root can generate several hundreds of words having different meanings. Table 2-4 presents different morphological forms of root study (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³). Table 2‑3: Different morphological forms of word study (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³). Word Tense Pluralities Meaning Gender Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Past Single He studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª Past Single She studied Feminine ÙÅ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Present Single He studies Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Present Single She studied Feminine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Past Dual They studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ § Past Dual They studied Feminine ÙÅ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Present Dual They study Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Present Dual They study Feminine ÙÅ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Present Dual They study Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Present Dual They study Feminine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ø § Past Plural They studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Past Plural They studied Feminine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Present Plural They study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Future Single They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Future Single They will study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Future Dual They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Future Dual They will study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†Future Plural They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†Future Plural They will study Feminine Some Arabic words have different meanings based on their appearance in the context. Especially when diacritics are not used, the proper meaning of the Arabic word can be determined based on the context. For instance, the word (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) could be Science (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), Teach (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢) or Flag (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢) depending on the diacritics [46]. Unfortunately, Arabic people do not explicitly mention the gemination mark in their writing. They depend on their knowledge of the language to supply the missing letter and write the words without it. In consequence, this is make the morphology process of such words is not an easy task [55]. Another challenge of automatic Arabic text processing is that proper nouns in Arabic do not start with a capital letter as in English, and Arabic letters do not have lower and upper case, which makes identifying proper names, acronyms, and abbreviations difficult. In English language, a word is a single entity. It may be a noun, a verb, a preposition, an article, , etc. While in Arabic language a single word could be a complete sentence. For example, Table 2.4 shows some single Arabic words and their equivalent English translations. Table 2‑4: Example: An Arabic Word could be a Complete English Sentence Arabic Word English Sentences Ø °Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª She go Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ I will read it Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ We hear him Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ÙÅ He told me ٠ؠºÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Then he departed There are several free benchmarking English datasets used for document categorization, such as 20 Newsgroup, which contains around 20,000 documents distributed almost evenly into 20 classes; Reuters 21,578, which contains 21,578 documents belonging to 17 classes; and RCV1 (Reuters Corpus Volume 1), which contains 806,791 documents classified into four main classes. Unfortunately, there is no free benchmarking dataset for Arabic document classification. In the Arabic language, the problem of synonyms and broken plural forms are widespread. Examples of synonyms in Arabic are (Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ø £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) which means (Come), and (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±, Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ª, Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ) which means (house). In the Arabic language, the problem of broken plural forms occurs when some irregular nouns in the Arabic language in plural takes another morphological form different from its initial form in singular. For example, the word (Doctors, Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡) is a broken plural of the masculine singular (Doctor, Ø ·ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¨). In the Arabic language, one word may have more than lexical category (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) in different contexts such as (wellspring, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… نؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡), (Eye, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… نؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ), (was appointed, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… نن¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ § للØ ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡). In addition to the different forms of the Arabic word that result from the derivational process, there are some words lack authentic Arabic roots like Arabized words which are translated from other languages, such as (programs, Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ ), (geography, Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÙÅ Ø ©), (internet, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¥Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ª ), etc. or names, places such as (countries, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ), (cities, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ), (rivers, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ù†¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), (mountains, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾), (deserts, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ °), etc. 2.4.Summary Arabic language is an international language belonging to the Semitic languages family (different from Indo-European languages in some respects). The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters in addition to some variants of existing letters. Each letter can appear in up to four different shapes, depending on the position of the letter in the Arabic word. Twenty-five of Arabic letters represent consonants. The remaining three letters represent the long vowels of Arabic. The Arabic writing system goes from right to left and most letters in Arabic words are joined together. Arabic has a rich and complex morphology. In many cases, one orthographic word is comprising many semantic and syntactic words. Traditionally there are two types of morphology in Arabic language: roots morphemes and affixes morphemes. The root morphemes divided into two categories. The first category is called lexical morphemes, which covers the words in the language carrying the content of the message. The second category is called stop words morphemes, which covers the function words such as adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions. Affixes morphemes cannot occur as words on their own; they need to be attached to something such as root morphemes. There are three types of affixes in Arabic language: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. All Arabic words could be classified into three main categories according to the part-of-speech: noun, verb, and particle. The noun and verb in Arabic might be further divided according to: number (singular, dual and plural), and case (nominative, genitive and accusative). Arabic. The Arabic language is a challenging language in comparison with other languages and has a complicated morphological structure. Therefore, the Arabic language needs a set of preprocessing routines to be suitable for cl
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Illustrative Essay
In society today we look at magazines and movies and strive to be just like the people we see. The guys in these magazines have six packs and arms with muscles the size of Mt. Everest. And the girls are all size double zeros with no meat anywhere on their bodies. A lot of Americans work out and diet to accomplish the goal of having these body types, but some go to drastic measures to get it. Many eating disorders and their side effects are taking over the lives of Americans every day. Anorexia Nervosa is the number one eating disorder in America. One in every one hundred woman suffers from this disorder.Anorexia is where you deprive your body from any food. This can create many problems with the body. In the beginning, minor problems can occur like fatigue, dizzy spells, and weakness. But later on, you can do so much as to give yourself certain heart diseases and some women even lose their menstrual cycles. Anorexia has controlled the lives of many celebrities like Karen Carpenter (w ho actually died from it), Mary Kate Olsen, and Tara Reid. Another eating disorder wide spread through the United States in Bulimia. Three in every one hundred woman suffer or have suffered from Bulimia.This disorder is where you still eat, but you cause yourself to vomit. Statistics show that many women will turn to this disease because it is â€Å"less threatening†than anorexia. Bulimia can cause slight abdominal pain and bloating. Long term side effects of this disorder can be broken blood vessels in your eyes, rotting of your teeth, and even some types of colon and throat cancers. The last eating disorder that is an issue in the USA is obesity. Many people don’t think obesity is an eating disorder, but in fact it is. Everyone’s standard of obesity is obviously ifferent, but on a national scale PBS says that seventy three percent of Americans are overweight or obese. Obesity can cause diabetes, strokes, heart attacks, and high blood pressure which are all li fe threatening problems. In conclusion, many eating problems are taking over America. There are healthier ways to get the body image you want. Don’t put your body at risk just to be what society wants you to be. You should be healthy, but you should become healthy, in a healthy manner. If you or anyone you know is struggling from an eating disorder, you should seek help as soon as possible.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Intramuscular Injection
An intramuscular injection is an injection given directly into the central area of a specific muscle. In this way, the blood vessels supplying that muscle distribute the injected medication via thecardiovascular system. Purpose Intramuscular injection is used for the delivery of certain drugs not recommended for other routes of administration, for instance intravenous, oral, or subcutaneous. The intramuscular route offers a faster rate of absorption than the subcutaneous route, and muscle tissue can often hold a larger volume of fluid without discomfort.In contrast, medication injected into muscle tissues is absorbed less rapidly and takes effect more slowly that medication that is injected intravenously. This is favorable for some medications. Precautions Careful consideration in deciding which injectable route is to be used for the prescribed medication is essential. The intramuscular route should not be used in cases where muscle size and condition is not adequate to support sufficient uptake of the drug.Intramuscular injection should be avoided if other routes of administration, especially oral, can be used to provide a comparable level of absorption and effect in any given individual's situation and condition. Intramuscular injections should not be given at a site where there is any indication of pain. Description Intramuscular (IM) injections are given directly into the central area of selected muscles. There are a number of sites on the human body that are suitable for IM injections; however, there are three sites that are most commonly used in this procedure.Deltoid muscle The deltoid muscle located laterally on the upper arm can be used for intramuscular injections. Originating from the Acromion process of the scapula and inserting approximately one-third of the way down the humerus, the deltoid muscle can be used readily for IM injections if there is sufficient muscle mass to justify use of this site. The deltoid's close proximity to the radi al nerve and radial artery means that careful consideration and palpation of the muscle is required to find a safe site for penetration of the needle.There are various methods for defining the boundaries of this muscle. Vastus lateralis muscle The vastus lateralis muscle forms part of the quadriceps muscle group of the upper leg and can be found on the anteriolateral aspect of the thigh. This muscle is more commonly used as the site for IM injections as it is generally thick and well formed in individuals of all ages and is not located close to any major arteries or nerves. It is also readily accessed. The middle third of the muscle is used to define the injection site.This third can be determined by visually dividing the length of the muscle that originates on the greater trochanter of the femur and inserts on the upper border of the patella and tibial tuberosity through the patella ligament into thirds. Palpation of the muscle is required to determine if sufficient body and mass i s present to undertake the procedure. Gluteus medius muscle The gluteus medius muscle, which is also known as the ventrogluteal site, is the third commonly used site for IM injections. The correct area for injection can be determined in the following manner.Place the heel of the hand of the greater trochanter of the femur with fingers pointing towards the patient's head. The left hand is used for the right hip and vice versa. While keeping the palm of the hand over the greater trochanter and placing the index finger on the anterior superior iliac spine, stretch the middle finger dorsally palpating for the iliac crest and then press lightly below this point. The triangle formed by the iliac crest, the third finger and index finger forms the area suitable for intramuscular injection.Determining which site is most appropriate will depend upon the patient's muscle density at each site, the type and nature of medication you wish to administer, and of course the patient's preferred site f or injections. Preparation Before administering medication, a health care practitioner verify the medication order for accuracy and prepare the medication from the vial or ampule. * First, ensure you have identified the patient and assist them into a position which is comfortable and practical for access to the njection site you have chosen. * Locate the correct area for injection using the above guidelines or those taught during medical training. Clean the site with an alcohol swab or other cleansing agent. * Prepare the syringe by removing the needle cover, inverting the syringe, and expelling any excess air. Approximately 0. 1–0. 2 ml of air should be left in the syringe so that the air in the top of the syringe chamber, when the syringe and needle are pointing down, forces the entire amount of medication to be delivered.This also prevents medication residue from being left in the needle, where it can leak into the subcutaneous and dermal layers when the syringe a nd needle are removed from the muscle. * When ready to inject, spread the skin using the fingers of the non-dominant hand. Holding the syringe with the thumb and forefinger of the dominant hand, pierce the skin and enter the muscle. This process should be done quickly with sufficient control so as to lessen the discomfort of the patient.If there is little muscle mass, particularly in infants or the elderly, then you may need to pinch the muscle to provide more volume of tissue in which to inject. * Aspirate at the injection site (while syringe and needle are within the muscle) by holding the barrel of the syringe with the non-dominant hand and pulling back on the syringe plunger with the dominant hand. If blood appears in the syringe, it is an indication that a blood vessel may have been punctured. The needle and syringe should be immediately withdrawn and a new injection prepared.If no blood is aspirated, continue by slowly injecting the medication at a constant rate until al l medication has been delivered. * Withdraw the needle and syringe quickly to minimize discomfort. The site may be briefly massaged, depending on the medication given. Some medication manufacturers advise against massaging the site after injection, as it reduces the effect and intention of the medication by dispersing it too readily or over too large an area. Manufacturers' recommendations should be checked. * Discard the used syringe and needle intact as soon as possible in an appropriate disposal receptacle. Check the site at least once more a short time after the injection to ensure that no bleeding, swelling or any other signs of reaction to the medication are present. Monitor the patient for other signs of side effects, especially if it is the first time the patient is receiving the medication. * Document all injections given and any other relevant information. Aftercare Monitor for signs of localized redness, swelling, bleeding, or inflammation at injection site. Observe the p atient for at least 15 minutes following the injection for signs of reaction to the drug. ComplicationsMost complications of intramuscular injections are a result of the drug injected and not the procedure. However, it is possible that localized trauma of the injection site may result as part of the process. Minor discomfort and pain is common for a short period following the injection, but usually resolves within a few hours. Results The optimal outcome is a situation in which the medication is safely and effectively delivered to the patient via intramuscular injection without signs of complications or discomfort. Safety for the health care provider is also paramount. Health care team rolesThe health care provider is obliged to undertake the following when administering an intramuscular injection: * Inform and educate the patient on the need and effect of the medication being delivered. * Ensure the correct identification and verification procedures are followed. * Provide privacy for the patient during the procedure. * Understand the theory behind selecting appropriate injection sites. * Demonstrate correct technique when undertaking the procedure. * Monitor for complications. * Document all relevant information and ensure safe disposal of equipment.
Friday, January 3, 2020
Definition and Examples of Determiners in English
In English grammar, a determiner is a word or a group of words that specifies, identifies, or quantifies the noun or noun phrase that follows it. It is also known as a prenominal modifier. Basically, determiners come at the start of a noun phrase and tell more about what comes after it (or them, in the case of a phrase that has more than one determiner before the noun). Determiners include articles (a, an, the), cardinal numbers (one, two, three...) and ordinal numbers (first, second, third...), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), partitives (some of, piece of, and others), quantifiers (most, all, and others), difference words (other, another), and possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, its, our, their). Authors Martha Kolln and Robert Funk describe them this way: Determiners signal nouns in a variety of ways: They may define the relationship of the noun to the speaker or listener (or reader); they may identify the noun as specific or general; they may quantify it specifically or refer to quantity in general. (Understanding English Grammar, 5th ed. Allyn and Bacon, 1998) A Slippery Grammatical Label Determiners are functional elements of structure and not formal word classes, because the group of words contains some items that are nouns, some that are pronouns, and some that are adjectives. Authors Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner explain: Determiners are sometimes called limiting adjectives in traditional grammar. However, they not only differ from the class of adjectives by meaning, but also must normally precede ordinary adjectives in noun phrase structure. Further, among determiners themselves there are co-occurrence restrictions and fairly strict rules of word order. (Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1994) Rules on Multiple Determiners English has rules on word order, such as when there are multiple adjectives in a row modifying the same noun (quantity before age, before color, for example). The same goes for when you use multiple determiners in a row. When there is more than one determiner, follow these useful rules:a) Place all and both in front of other determiners.E.g. We ate all the food. Both my sons are at college.b) Place what and such in front of a and an in exclamations.E.g. What an awful day! Ive never seen such a crowd!c) Place many, much, more, most, few, little after other determiners.E.g. His many successes made him famous. They have no more food. What little money I have is yours.​ (Geoffrey N. Leech, Benita Cruickshank, and Roz IvaniÄ , An A-Z of English Grammar Usage, 2nd ed. Longman, 2001) Count and Noncount Nouns Some determiners work with count nouns, and some dont. For example, many attaches to count nouns, such as The child had many marbles. In contrast, you would not use much to attach to count nouns such as marbles but noncount nouns such as work, for example in, The college student had much work to finish before finals week. Other determiners work with either one, such as all: The child had all the marbles and The college student had all the work to finish before finals week.
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